EVENIMENTE

04.09.10

Simpozion al Asociatiei "Est-Democratia": "Diplomati romani si straini in istoria Romaniei"

Asociatia "Est-Democratia", impreuna cu Institutul de Istorie "A.D. Xenopol", organizeaza in zilele de 17-18 septembrie simpozionul cu tema: "Diplomati romani si straini in istoria Romaniei". Evenimentul va fi gazduit de Muzeul Unirii din Iasi, str. Al. Lapusneanu. Vor fi prezenti specialisti in istorie si relatii internationale din Iasi, Bucuresti, Craiova Chisinau, Targoviste.

25.06.10

Dezbatere - Armata Romana la Portile Orientului

Asociatia "Est-Democratia" va invita vineri, 25 iunie, ora 12, la Casa Pogor, sala Pod-Pogor, la dezbaterea cu tema: " Armata Romana la Portile Orientului". Invitati: locotenent Ciprian Ignat si locotenent Silviu Velescu - Brigada 15 Mecanizata "Podu Inalt" si Lucian Dirdala - analist de relatii internationale. Intilnirea va fi deschisa de o prezentare a mediului international in secolul XXI si a situatiei din Orientul Mijlociu, in special. Apoi, vor fi prezentate si comentate imagini si evenimente din activitatea Batalionului iesean "Lupii negri", din Irak si Afganistan.

03.06.10

Expoziţia ”Jurnal de modă...moda feminină la 1900” itinerată la Muzeul Unirii-Iaşi

Muzeul Naţional Cotroceni în colaborare cu Muzeul Naţional al Unirii din Alba Iulia, Complexul Muzeal Arad, Muzeul Naţional de Istorie a României, Complexul Muzeal Naţional "Moldova", Iaşi, Muzeul Literaturii Române, Iaşi, itinerează expoziţia "Jurnal de modă...moda feminină la 1900", în cadrul Complexului Muzeal Naţional "Moldova" – Muzeul Unirii din Iaşi. Vernisajul va avea loc marţi, 8 iunie 2010, orele 17.00, la sediul Muzeului Unirii, strada Al. Lăpuşneanu, nr. 12.

24.05.10

Cerul pe Pamant. Sacru si modernitate la inceput de mileniu III.

Asociatia "Est-Democratia" si Muzeul Literaturii Romane organizeaza dezbaterea "Cerul pe Pamant. Sacru si modernitate la inceput de mileniu III", moderata de dr. Andi Mihalache. Evenimentul va include lansarea albumului "Manastiri Moldave" (Bogdan Onofrei) si o dezbatere despre arta, patrimoniu si rolul religiei in secolul XXI. Vor fi prezenti oameni de arta, istorici si preoti.

09.05.10

"Curajul de a înfrunta dictatura - Revolta studenţilor ieşeni din 1987"

Asociaţia "Est - Democratia" vă invită la dezbaterea cu tema - "Curajul de a înfrunta dictatura - Revolta studenţilor ieşeni din 1987". Sunt invitaţi foşti studenţi şi profesori din acea peroadă, istorici şi analişti politici. Dezbaterea va avea loc miercuri, 12 mai, orele 17, la Muzeul Literaturii Române, sala Pod-Pogor, str. Vasile Pogor nr. 4.

17.04.10

Dezbatere “Şansele şi rolul tinerilor în politică. Oportunităţi, speranţe, deziluzii”

Va invitam la dezbaterea organizată de Asociaţia “Est-Democraţia” împreună cu Muzeul Literaturii Române. Invitaţi: liderii organizaţiilor de tineret din partidele politice parlamentare. Filialele ieşene. 28 aprilie, la Casa Pogor.

Dr. ANDI MIHALACHE

Sur les usages publics du secret : les archives du Service Secret Communiste Roumain

Résumés

This article focuses on the Securitate files as a political stake, but also as first rank sources for academic research, not from the current perspective of recent history, but from that of cultural history. In post-communist Romania, silence is the secret’s poor relative and confidentiality its respectable form. Ironically or not, we could state that in our country the secrets of communist repression are literally protected by law. The secret is an unbidden, illegitimate competence. In its ethics it does not matter what is good and what is bad, what is true and what is false. The main interest is what is said and what isn’t. The secret being a convention, a pact, the gesture of not saying seems to be more important than the thing unsaid. The inexpressible, the unsaying create relationships, social complicity, but also hierarchies, demarcations between those who hold a secret and those who do not know it or are afraid for this not to be divulged.

Texte intégral

1.L’horizon fondamental de la connaissance historique transcende l’histoire conventionnelle, comprenant une histoire plus large, une série de sources plus variées et une notion plus compréhensive de la « vérité ». Le sens du passé vient moins des manuels d’histoire et plus de ce que nous voyons et faisons chaque jour, sans l’intention déclarée de créer une certaine relation avec le temps1. S'inscrivant dans cette optique, mon essai s’occupe des dossiers de l’ancienne police politique du régime communiste de Roumanie, la Sécuritate. Il a comme point de départ le fait que la mémoire sociale, le contexte politique et les débats publics actuels influencent la recherche historique, modifiant les perceptions sur le document d’archive. Ce dernier n’est plus vu seulement comme source principale de la recherche historique, devenant outil redoutable dans les disputes électorales, car, sur la base des informations extraites d’un dossier de la Securitate, l’on peut évincer un adversaire incommode. Se montrant utile à dénoncer la collaboration de quelqu’un sous le régime communiste, le document d’archive a acquis une valeur symbolique imprévue, étant caché, protégé, volé, racheté, truqué, perdu et redécouvert à commande. La patrimonialisation excessive des documents - en vérité leur trésorisation - est la conséquence directe du prestige idéologique et social que le secret détenait au temps communiste. Toutes ces pratiques compromettent de plus en plus les chances des historiens de reconstituer de manière crédible l’histoire récente des Roumains. La première partiede mon étude montrera que sous le régime communiste, le secret était une forme de sociabilité, une sorte de « pacte de stabilité » : l’informateur participait au secret pour pouvoir participer au pouvoir. La deuxième partie de l’étude sera dédiée aux politiques de l’oubli dans la Roumanie postcommuniste. Enfin, la troisième partie aborde le dossier de la police politique communiste comme source de l’histoire récente et propose quelques solutions pour la rendre utilisable.

  • 1  David Lowenthal, Past is a foreign country, Cambridge University Press, 1985, traduction en (...)

Le communisme et l’éthique du secret

2.La force d’un secret c’est d’être toujours annoncé, mais jamais énoncé2. Grâce à sa capacité à dire quelque chose d’autre et plus que le fait qu’il cache, le secret a toujours fait l’objet d’une fascination irrépressible. C’est pourquoi il ne peut être conçu comme tout simplement séparé de la sphère publique, mais en permanent contact, en continuelle opposition avec celle-ci3. Nous le décrivons plus amplement, en en appelant à ses trois composantes : a) l’information, b) sa dissimulation et c) la relation avec quelqu’un d’autre, née de cette dissimulation4. Et, en remémorant le rôle que le secret a joué dans le fonctionnement des sociétés communistes, nous réfléchirons peut-être mieux à notre présent d’autrefois.

  • 2  Umberto Eco, I limiti dell’ interpretatione, Bompiani, Milano, 1990, traduction en roumain par (...)
  • 3  István, Király V., Fenomenologia existenţială a secretului, Piteşti, Ed. Paralela 45, (...)
  • 4  Gérard Vincent, « Une histoire du secret ? », in Philippe Ariès, Georges Duby, (...)

3.La rencontre entre le parti communiste roumain et la catégorie du secret se produit, à un niveau organisationnel, avec son passage à l’illégalité (1924). Revenu dans la vie politique en 1944, il gardait et employait, dans les nouvelles conditions, l’expérience de la conspiration, la pratique tellement efficace du secret. Corroboré par l’idéologie totalitaire communiste, celui-ci a eu l’occasion de participer à la restructuration de toutes les sphères d’activité. Autrement dit, il y a eu une tendance systémique d’imposer le secret d’état comme forme typique du secret5.

  • 5  István, Király V., op. cit., p. 80.

4.Le dossier de la Securitate faisait de chaque individu le sujet d’une investigation persévérante et le support d’une nouvelle modalité de pouvoir. Une fois accusé, le sujet était déjà coupable, la mission des enquêteurs étant simplement celle d’établir le quantum de culpabilité. Les diverses composantes du dossier ne représentaient pas, prises individuellement, des éléments neutres, chaque indice ajoutant un degré d’infamie en plus6. Le principe était qu'on n’était pas suspecté sans raison et qu'on méritait donc, de toute façon, une sanction. La règle était simple : comme disait Michel Foucault, un début de suspicion provoquait un début de punition7.

  • 6 Michel Foucault, Surveiller et punir. Naissance de la prison, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, 1975, (...)
  • 7  Ibidem.

5.La Securitate contrôlait ses informateurs justement parce qu’elle en savait beaucoup sur eux : détenir le secret de quelqu’un supposait en avoir fait une déclaration, livrant de surcroît certaines informations compromettantes sur d’autres personnes8. Acceptant, alternativement, la posture de surveillant et de surveillé, les délateurs prenaient part au secret afin de participer au pouvoir9. Le passage de différentes informations en circuit clos était aussi une forme de sociabilité, une manière d’encourager de petites communautés, qui vivaient de la satisfaction psychologique de détenir certains secrets, mais aussi de la peur de leur divulgation10. Finalement, le secret arrivait à être un facteur important de la stabilité sociale, offrant aux organes répressifs la possibilité d’arbitrer les relations interpersonnelles : l’homo sovieticus ne s’exprimait pas ouvertement, en préférant un médiateur omnipotent, appelé à résoudre pour lui les intérêts, les envies. Dénonçant, il ne faisait rien de concret, il demandait qu’on fasse11, observait Liviu Papadima. Le dossier fait sur l’autre agissait à sa place, c’était une revanche par procuration. Par l’anonymat, le délateur se soustrayait de la responsabilité de ses affirmations, qui devenait celle de son pseudonyme (« Marcu », « Bucur », « Mircea », etc.). Le paradoxe de l’anonymat était que cette manœuvre substitutive était destinée à donner l’impression d’un plus d’objectivité, à jouer le rôle d’une instance impersonnelle. L’anonyme cache pour prouver12.

  • 8  Gérard Vincent, op. cit., p. 148.
  • 9  David Le Breton, Du silence, Paris, Éditions Métailié, 1997, traduction en roumain par (...)
  • 10  Ibidem, p. 126.
  • 11  Liviu Papadima, Caragiale, fireşte, Bucureşti, Ed. Fundaţiei Culturale Române, Bucureşti, (...)
  • 12  Ibidem, p. 49.

 

La Roumanie postcommuniste et la culture de la confidentialité

6.Le Conseil National pour l’Étude des Archives de la Securitate (CNSAS) est subordonné au Parlement de Roumanie et fonctionne conformément à la Loi no. 187/07 12 1999 (voir l’annexe). Celle-ci permet l’accès au dossier personnel pour tous ceux qui ont été, entre 1945 et 1989, citoyens roumains. La loi 187/1999 offre la possibilité d’être informé, sur requête, de l’activité d’agent ou collaborateur de la Securitate (comme police politique) de ces personnes qui occupent ou posent leur candidature pour l’une des dignités ou fonctions publiques (Président de la Roumanie, sénateur, député, membre du Gouvernement, préfet, maire, juge, procureur, ambassadeur et n’importe quelle fonction de direction dans l’administration centrale ou locale  ; on y ajoute ceux qui occupent des fonctions importantes dans les médias, dans les domaines de la culture, de l’éducation : rédacteur en chef, académicien, recteur, doyen). En même temps, la loi 187/1999 met à la disposition des historiens des matériels sur l’activité de police politique de l’ancienne Securitate, en vue d’offrir à la société une image aussi juste que possible de la période communiste. La théorie sonne bien, mais la pratique est autre chose.

7.Après la chute des régimes communistes tous les débats publics furent d’abord concentrés sur l’histoire de la police secrète, confirmant ainsi l’efficacité d’une dissimulation habituelle dans les pays ex-communistes : de temps en temps, tout service secret se définit comme dissous, cela pour pouvoir continuer son activité sans être dérangé13. Pour leur passé communiste, les Roumains préfèrent une solution spécifique pour préserver la mémoire collective de manière non-publique, comme un secret. En fait, cela n’est qu’une « domestication » de l’histoire récente dans un cadre restrictif. C’est une manière de renvoyer cette période dans un espace non déterminé, une tendance bien connue d’externaliser le mal14.

  • 13  István, Király  V., op. cit., p. 183.
  • 14  Adrian Neculau, Memoria pierdută. Eseuri de psihosociologia schimbării, Iaşi, Ed. Polirom, (...)

 

 

8.Sur fond de crise de confiance et d’inefficacité généralisée dans la première décennie de la période postcommuniste, le secret, facile à conserver en tant que tel, apporte aux autorités qui le défendent un plus de prestige. Par analogie, la longévité de certaines institutions d’état comme les services secrets passe pour une grande performance, devenant le symboled’un concept plus ample, « la perpétuité de la nation ». Dans la première décennie de la période postcommuniste, les gens ont été habitués à l’idée qu’il n’est pas décent d’accéder aux secrets de sa propre vie, les autorités transformant la chicanerie d’ordre législatif, bureaucratique, en un élément de culture politique, de mentalité. À cause de cette attitude de longue date, les Roumains se résignent à la pensée que les biographies, la légitimité des leaders politiques actuels ne sont pas essentielles, que les vérités du communisme ne remplacent pas l’efficience économique.

9.Dans cette perspective, la protection du secret se trouve placé sous le signe du danger public, comme les violations de tabous ou les sources de malchance. Nous gardons une conception patrimoniale du secret, bon à transmettre, comme rareté et comme objet précieux, aux générations futures. C’est une impiété de le divulguer. Sa valeur augmente avec l’écoulement du temps et il éveille des passions de collectionneur, tout comme les antiquités ou les vins anciens. Nous confirmons donc une mythologie spontanée qui soutient que l’homme continuerait dans les objets et survivrait à soi-même par eux 15. Les dossiers de la Securitate doivent donc être évités pieusement et réouverts nostalgiquement tout au plus, comme le coffre de dot de la grand-mère. Puisque leur secret est le substitut laïcisé d’un sentiment disparu depuis longtemps du sacré, on croit que son administration en tant que propriété supposerait des compétences spéciales et une conduite différente. Faute de héros, on recourt à des mythes qui approchent les contradictions afin de les dépasser, au nom du besoin de certitudes. Par conséquent, l’officier de Securitate qui hier garantissait la non-intervention des citoyens dans les affaires du pays, est redécouvert comme technocrate : celui qui risque pour que nous soyons en sûreté, celui qui détient la vérité et la supporte à notre place. Entre lui et nous il y avait donc une relation de représentation usurpée maintenant par l’accès des « civils » aux dossiers. A ceux qui sont habitués à l’idée que les succès sont collectifs et les erreurs personnelles, la vigilance punitive d’une institution – la Securitate – semble être légitime, patriotique, la faute appartenant, accidentellement, à l’individu, l’informateur dans le cas présent.

  • 15  Jean Baudrillard, Le système des objets, Paris, Éditions Gallimard, 1968, traduction en (...)

10.En Roumanie post-communiste, le silence est le parent pauvre du secret, et la confidentialité en est la forme respectable. Dans l’éthique du secret, ce qui est bien et ce qui est mal, ce qui est vrai et ce qui est faux ne comptent point. Ce qui intéresse, surtout, c’est ce qui est dit et ce qui n’est pas dit. Puisque le secret est une convention, un pacte, le geste de ne pas dire semble être plus important que la chose non-dite16. L’indicible, le non-dit créent des liaisons, des complicités sociales, mais aussi des hiérarchies, des délimitations entre ceux qui détiennent un secret et ceux qui ne le connaissent pas ou ont peur de sa divulgation.

  • 16  André Petitat, Secret et formes sociales, Paris, Presses Universitaires de France, 1998, (...)

 

11.Les vérités cachées arrivent à avoir, pour ainsi dire, une fonction civique, celle de défendre le consensus national, la paix sociale. Elles acquièrent en même temps un caractère patrimonial, de souffrance méritante de certains, dissimulée au nom de tous. Les tragédies de certains individus sont oubliées sous le prétexte d’avoir été celles de toute la société, de tous les Roumains, et il serait indécent, dit-on, qu’elles soient revendiquées par tel ou tel individu. Ne pas parler de soi parce que le même ennui est arrivé à quelqu’un d’autre est un nouvel état de la censure, non pas tant politique que sociale. Finalement, les secrets du communisme sont défendus avec l’aide même des valeurs démocratiques et religieuses. On prétend que ce n’est pas le moment de déterrer le passé, qu’il faudrait respecter, maintenant au moins, l’intimité de l’individu, les droits de l’homme, et qu’il ne serait pas chrétien de se venger. C’est pourquoi on pense qu’il vaudrait mieux que tous les secrets de nos vies pendant le communisme soient gardés par un petit groupe de fonctionnaires, par une institution spécialisée, le Service Roumain d’Informations (SRI). Puisqu’il nécessite continuellement un crédit de confiance, le secret pose ainsi les bases d’une relation de communication sui generis. L’enjeu du secret d’état ne réside pas dans l’information cachée. Comme le souligne Gérard Vincent, il se concentre plutôt sur l’ordre qu’il met en danger au cas où il est divulgué17. C’est pourquoi il décide ce qui doit être connu ou non dans la sphère publique18. Le secret en fait les contours, les limites, le découpage, pour ainsi dire, en construisant, par l’omission des vérités importunes, l’identité historique d’une communauté19. L’idée que le secret protège fait de la vérité un trauma. On dit que les souffrances provoquées par la Securitate ont été si grandes que leur investigation actuelle serait prématurée et que l’on devrait prendre en considération la possibilité que leur résurrection par des mots génère le risque de les faire revivre en fait. Le secret est une vérité non-appropriée, souligne André Petitat20. Il joue un rôle médiateur entre les informations contradictoires, entre ce qu’un groupe social veut savoir et ce qu’il ne veut pas savoir de lui-même. Il élimine une partie de ces aspects-là qui contredisent le besoin d’expliquer de manière cohérente l’image de soi. Sur la base de cette recherche obstinée de la continuité, de l’identité historique du peuple roumain, le secret divulgué passe pour un événement non désiré, traumatique, à même de bouleverser les sens. De plus, une fois divulgué, le secret détruit sociabilités, complicités, valeurs.

  • 17  Gérard Vincent, op. cit., p. 182.
  • 18  Daniel Barbu « Cenzura şi producerea spaţiului public », préface Bogdan Ficeac, Cenzura (...)
  • 19  Adrian Neculau, op. cit., p.173.
  • 20  André Petitat, op. cit., p. 75.

 

 

Metaphor and monumentality in the travel prose of Nicolae Iorga

 

1. The West as museum

 

The point of simply departing is to arrive, but the story behind a journey is curiosity. And the study of learned journeys confirms once more that the emergence of modern self-consciousness arises from differences, which are not necessarily novelties. On the contrary, the Oriental traveller, accustomed to thinking about time in terms of physical distances, travels to the Western medieval and ancient past not to discover it, but to resuscitate it, as an alternative present. The monuments seen through the lens of prior reading exist, then, not so much in terms of the history of which they are the repository, as through the way in which we ‘inhabit’ them.

As evidence of a prestigious history, ancient or medieval ruins were analysed by Western travellers, who themselves interpreted them through readings, cabinets of curiosity, collections and so forth. This in turn provoked the curiosity of easterners, the topoi suggested by readings becoming obligatory stopping-off points on the itineraries of cultural tourism. A city or monument described by Goethe or Chateaubriand would - as a consequence of such descriptions - duly be visited by East European travellers. By consecrating the points of interest of a European tour, Western travellers educated the imaginations and expectations of others, who seemed to recognise the West through self-identification with a series of cultural symbols such as galleries, museums, monuments and even the points where famous travellers had previously paused. Western travel literature had already inventoried ‘the places to be seen’, and the West was thus presented as a prescribed route, as in a museum. For that reason, we are left with questions such as: when a traveller goes west, what arrives first: himself or his imagination? Does the West recognise itself in those artifacts and sites through which it invites others to discover it in its respective manifestations? Or is it the easterners who, eager to relate to an older, more glorious past, read the West in a monumental key?

For we look at and think about monuments in order to understand the world we come from, the space to which we feel an allegiance. Travel naturally inspires reflections on the spaces travelled through, but also produces representations of its starting point. Travel literature poses the problem of successive representations, superimposed, often a priori, anachronistic, mediated by the tastes of the moment, by other exemplary travel experiences, by the given constraints of a genre which stimulate different ways of seeing, and may even inspire people to travel.

Travel, then, does not mean going in a given direction. It means deja-vu and anticipation, a collection of tableaux in motion. Like art, travel limits itself to a restructuring of the sphere of the visible through the intermediary of the imagination: that faculty which we possess of imagining things and places even in their absence. Its relationship with heritage is particularly evident in a Romantic context, where the relationships between truth and artistic creation are re-evaluated, and Plato’s ancient definition of art - as a poor copy of nature - is rejected. For the German Romantics for example, art was no longer a modest imitation of the real, but direct, intuitive and total knowledge of existence as a whole. Considered from this point of view, the impressions left by historical monuments became much more profound, suggesting to the spectator a direct, real involvement in the dreamt-of past.

 

 

2. Nicolae Iorga (1871-1940)

 

The above considerations were inspired by - and may, I hope, serve to introduce - a reading of the travel writings of the Romanian scholar Nicolae Iorga (1871-1940). A prolific and illustrious writer, specialist in Romanian, Balkan, Byzantine and Ottoman history, doctor honoris causa of the universities of Rome, Paris, Oxford and Geneva, cultural activist, orator and journalist, and briefly, prime minister of Romania (1930-31), Iorga produced a massive œuvre, marked by a confrontation between modernity and tradition, and also by his contradictory, passionate and melancholy personality. Iorga came of age as an intellectual and a public figure at a time when his country, having freed itself from Ottoman rule and become an independent kingdom in 1881, was establishing its political and cultural self-image and beginning to act as a focal point for the aspirations of Romanians in the neighbouring empires, notably in the Austrian province of Transylvania and in Russian Bessarabia.

From the early 1890s Iorga studied and researched archives in France, Germany and Italy. He made his name first by publishing historical documents and works on medieval history; and then, from the beginning of the twentieth century, as a nationalist pamphleteer, agitator of the Romanians of Transylvania, and literary entrepreneur, pursuing a generally traditionalist, neo-Romantic cultural orientation, stressing the cult of originality and the popular spirit, and criticising superficial cultural imitations and foreign borrowings. His thought, however, should not entirely be associated with a right-wing, passeist, xenophobic hostility to change. Aspects of his doctrine were shared with, and indeed borrowed from, modernist and socialist currents of thought, notably the critic and theoretician Constantin Dobrogeanu-Gherea.[1] In turn-of-the-century Romania, nationalists and socialists found common ground in denouncing bourgeois theories of the autonomy of art, which neglected the interests and the tastes of Romania’s majority peasant population.

Starting from the premise that meaning is derived from continuity of tradition, Iorga criticised the Romanians’ abandonment of what he saw as their ancestral values, and tried to affirm their sense of obligation towards a patriarchal style of life. His motivation was not so much love of the archaic for its own sake, but might be related to a more general attempt to demonstrate that Europe’s Orient had produced, in spite of all obstacles, a culture as a viable as that which had developed in Western Europe.[2] He saw these two civilisations as being complementary rather than comparable. His nationalism insisted on preserving what was specific to Romanian culture, but also sought to modify and adapt it, above all in order to make it translatable.[3] He did not seek to denigrate the West, but rather to situate the history of the Romanians (and other East European peoples) in respectable relation to it. In Iorga’s conception, long periods of interaction between different parts of the world had produced a series of cultural and behavioural ‘frames’, and he sought to uncover them wherever he went. He viewed the world with an ethnographer’s eye, seeking out the atemporal particularities of each country. [4]

Looking at Iorga’s travel writings[5] from the theoretical viewpoint proposed by Erving Goffman, one might consider his monumental vision of Western civilisation in terms of “anticipated alterity”.[6] In order to produce an articulate indigenist ideology, Iorga’s generation sought to question the traditional stigmatizing self-conceptions of Romanian “backwardness”, and posit a role as viable challengers to the West.[7] As part of this strategy, Iorga resorted to what I will call here “the unifying function of metaphor”.

 

 

 

3. Iorga the impressionist

 

Astandard tourist excursion gives little attention to the ambience in which the vestiges of the past can be seen. Such journeys are, rather, associated with the achievement of a certain aim. Iorga on the other hand, developing a method which may be called impressionist, sought to broaden his and his readership’s horizons by bringing home not just verbal cliches, but painted or written sketches. His work - and other more general aspects of Romanian national ideology - is frequently subsumed under the category of romanticism, understood not just as a particular chronological segment of modern culture, but also as an atemporal attitude. In using the term here, we refer not just to a period which the school books place in the first half of the nineteenth century, but a timeless propensity,[8] which in the present case happened to manifest itself between 1871 and 1940. But what kind of a traveller was he?

Ordinary travellers, innocent, abroad, and open to any old observation, do not generally remark upon the atmospherics of historical vestiges. More usually, they date their journey, associating it with the visit to such an objective, and the narrated order of such experiences does not usually correspond to the real succession of events. The tourist prefers monuments to people.[9] His transports have a restful, holiday function; tiring encounters with the local population are as a rule avoided, and dialogue is subordinated to the arbitrary collection of fixed images.[10] The impressionist - a category in which we place Nicolae Iorga - is a completely different beast: a tourist with a highly specialist training, with a little more time at his disposal, and sincerely disposed to broaden his horizons to take in human beings too, and not bring home mere verbal clichés, inclining towards written or painted sketches.[11] On the road to Câmpulung Muscel he notes: here and there by the side of the embanked road appear the heroes of the painter-poet Grigorescu: little shepherds and shepherdesses, in bright white clothing and with fine light in their eyes, standing in their proud simplicity like sons of emperors after a costume change, lost in the forests condemned by some witch who will yet perish tomorrow by the vengeful hand of innocence, and then they, the shepherds and shepherdesses, with their crooks and distaffs, will come forth truly, to the joy of the multitude, as tawny princes and lily-white princesses.[12]

  What Iorga is describing here are not so much untrodden territories and their inhabitants, but the impressions produced by them upon him, through sounds, tastes, unexpected images, customs, phantasms.[13] Such writings do not, then, come to any kind of denouement, they rather leave us to understand that their author will return to relate some other adventures. A conclusion is thereby promised and delayed at the same time, thanks to the picturesque assimilation of objects, details and colours.[14] In the final analysis, the fairy-tale, not by accident, has crystallised itself as a species of endless journey.[15]

He who remembers in writing does not engage in conversation with himself. He clearly addresses another reader whom he wishes to impress not so much by the simple inventorization of things seen, but particularly by his presence on the spot, and by the intense experiences which his journey occasioned. For his part, Iorga acknowledged the nineteenth-century historian, politician and traveller Mihail Kogălniceanu as his predecessor - “at the Romanian Academy, we have his notes on Spain, a hundred pages of manuscript of which only a few bits and pieces have been published, and not the best ones”[16] - and did not fail to mention one of his great childhood favourites, Hugo’s Orientales. His travels do not end upon arrival at the desired destination, but continue in writing, as the world’s vast spaces are reconciled with the images chosen by memory, and ordered into a story by the norms of narration. Modern Gullivers do not usually divulge the real motives of their journeys, impressions gathered on the road come together in short passages, without a well-defined beginning or end. As Gilbert Durand once said, it is the anthology that generates the museum.[17] The purpose of the journey is of no apparent importance, descriptions are deliberately isolated and individualised, like specimens in an exhibition display case. To sum up, the Romanian historian’s journey begins with his personal reading and ends up as a series of notes intended for reading by others. “Read before setting out,” Iorga advises us. “That at least is why I spent time and effort writing and publishing books like those Five Lectures on Venice, like In France, and others like that on Contemporary Greece, on Serbia, on the journey From Bulgaria to Constantinople, on the Scandinavian lands, on Spain and Portugal, on America”.[18] People tell stories so that their memory survives them, but also that things be known, that experience once acquired may be held forever and transmitted through the gift of the word.[19] The more so as at home we are fatally static, prisoners of a dominant reality, pleasant or otherwise; and it is only when we go off somewhere that we learn to make selections, and to present ourselves in favourable freeze-frames. Maybe that explains the extremely passéist disposition of the Romanian traveller. France, usually associated by Romanians with the latest novelties and fashions, inspires in Iorga a flash of autobiographical melancholy: “France... we are heading towards her. Twenty-two years have passed since I last saw her. And I feel as if I am turning once more towards myself, towards somebody younger, happier, more infatuated with everything, as I was then...”[20]

Although he made the claim that “I took notes on the way, stopping to write in riverside meadows”,[21] we should perhaps question the spontaneity of his impressions. We cannot know which of his sentences were composed during or immediately after the journey, and which ones he wrote up afterwards. The historian may have retrospectively attributed to their composition the status of experiences corresponding to a given moment or landscape.

 

 

4. The unifying function of metaphor

 

The better to endure it, we avoid direct contact with the real when it doesn’t suit us; we approach it parabolically. Analysing Iorga’s discourse, we can see that, beyond the ornamental stylistic register, his mode of reasoning and argumentation may be described as metaphorical. In Greek metaphora means ‘transfer’, ‘transport’.[22] As a figure of speech, it involves an abbreviated comparison between two things which are to be seen not as synonymous, but as images which evoke one or more characteristics of the object compared.[23] In the context of travel literature, and the symbolic East-West geographies mapped out therein, metaphor functions not just as an instrument of the poetic imagination, of “invention”. It is, in the succinct definition offered by the Romanian literary critic Tudor Vianu, “the result of an implicit comparison”.[24] As it then moves from literary usage into everyday speech, it begins to play an important role in defining immediate reality, and may even cause people to act in accordance with the representations which it sustains.[25]

According to Iorga, the feelings we entertain about our own nation, whatever they may be, cannot be verified unless we know the life of others.[26] He did not affirm this merely out of a desire to know the other, but in order to grasp, in an organicist spirit, all kinds of analogies, syntheses, and genealogies. By using metaphor to depict the transhistorical relationship of the Orthodox East with the Catholic or Protestant West, Iorga sought in a way to compare without drawing conclusions, and bring out coincidences, superimpositions, identities. It is a discourse based on the presupposition of a deeper unity among things, beyond the apparent differences between them.[27] First of all, any discordant elements, such as might impede the reconciliation of Europe’s two poles, are avoided or eliminated; a few opposing elements are then retained, which suggest both specificity and commonality.[28] Awareness of the resemblance between the two terms of comparison - the Balkans and the West - co-exists with awareness of the distances between them.[29] That is metaphorization: the common elements of two things are drawn together to mediate between the differences. Its pretext is similitude, while its raison d’etre remains difference, or more exactly the sublimation of difference. One might even say that the role of metaphor is to avoid frontal comparisons, to bring the unknown into a framework supplied by the already known.[30] It conciliates between two realities, obliging them to engage in dialogue, albeit selectively, through the intermediary of the common features - in this case, Latinity, Christianity, the Gothic style - and thus making them comparable, but not identical. Iorga is, then, working within the Romantic episteme, focused on the re-association of different fields of thought and a refusal to draw a line between science and art, between reason and fancy.[31]

 


[1] George Călinescu, Istoria literaturii române de la origini şi până în prezent, 2nd, rev. edn., Bucureşti, Minerva, 1982, 601.

[2] In Iorga's writings, East and West are united by Christianity, Latinity, and the anti-Ottoman crusades. This does not, however, amount to an Augustinian universalism. Any Christian notes in Iorga's thought evince not a cosmopolitan foundation but rather an ecumenical outlook, an attempt to reconcile identities without renouncing them.

[3] Julia Kristeva, Étrangers à nous-mêmes, Paris, Gallimard, 1988, 262.

[4] Nicolae Iorga, Două concepţii istorice, în Discursuri de recepţie la Academia Română, ed. O. Păun, A. Tănăsescu, Bucureşti, Albatros, 1980, 58-80.

[5] Barbu Theodorescu, Nicolae Iorga, Bucureşti, Tineretului, 1968, 79-98.

[6] Erving Goffman, Stigmate. Les usages sociaux des handicaps, Paris, Editions de Minuit, 1975. Sorin Antohi, Civitas imaginalis. Istorie şi utopie în cultura română, Iaşi, Polirom, 1999, 254 applied Goffman's theories to the Romanian case. Undervaluing ourselves, we in fact establish our own set of norms, whereby, indirectly, we delegitimate our superiors, accusing them of being incapable of understanding us. The “secondary benefits” accruing to the stigmatised include, for instance, the disproportionate value accorded to unexpected but otherwise modest achievements (258).

[7] Alex Drace-Francis, “Dinicu Golescu’s Account Of My Travels (1826): Eurotopia as manifesto”, Journeys. The International Journal of Travel and Travel Writing, vol. 6, nr.1-2 (2005), 24-53 proposed a distinction between interiorization of the gaze of the other, and the use of self-stigmatization as a discursive strategy.

[8] Marian Popa, Călătoriile epocii romantice, Bucureşti, Univers, 1972, 11.

[9] Tzvetan Todorov, Noi şi ceilalţi. Despre diversitate, tr. A. Vlad, Iaşi, Institutul European, 1999, 465.

[10] Ibid., 465-6.

[11] Ibid., 467.

[12] Nicolae Iorga, Drumuri şi oraşe din România, 2nd edn., Bucureşti, Pavel Suru, 1916, 59. “Grigorescu” = Nicolae Grigorescu (1838-1907) one of the founding figures of modern Romanian painting, noted for his open-air scenes, studies of village life and of certain human typologies.

[13] Ibid.

[14] Mircea Muthu, Literatura română şi spiritul sud-est european, Bucureşti, Minerva, 1976, 181.

[15] Ibid.

[16] Nicolae Iorga, Câteva zile prin Spania, Bucureşti, Editura Casei Şcoalelor, 1927, 169.

[17] Gilbert Durand, Aventurile imaginii. Imaginaţia simbolică. Imaginarul, tr. M. Constantinescu & A. Bobocea, Bucureşti, Nemira, 1999, 114.

[18] Nicolae Iorga, Peisagii, Cluj, Cartimpex, 1998, 265.

[19] Muthu, Literatura română, 180.

[20] Iorga, Note de drum, Bucureşti, „Neamul românesc”, 1913, 33.

[21] Idem, Orizonturile mele. O viaţă de om aşa cum a fost, Bucureşti, Minerva, 1984, 234.

[22] Gh. N. Dragomirescu, Dicţionarul figurilor de stil, Bucureşti, Ştiinţifică, 1995, 198.

[23] Ibid., 199.

[24] Tudor Vianu, Problemele metaforei şi alte studii de stilistică, Bucureşti, Editura de stat pentru literatură şi artă, 1957, 9.

[25] Olga Brednikova, “Fence and gates: Images and metaphors of the modern Russian border”, Caietele Echinox, Cluj, vol. 5/2003, 156.

[26] Nicolae Iorga, Generalităţi cu privire la studiile istorice. 4th edn. Iaşi, Polirom, 1999, 242.

[27] Vianu, Problemele metaforei, 19.

[28] Ibid.

[29] Ibid.

[30] Ibid., 28, 29, 40.

[31] Ibid., 43.